IR+&+IC

toc =Foreign Policy= Three long-term trends: (i) The end points on the ICT networks: their number, scope, and heterogeneity, processprs, data sourcers etc. (ii) Convergence of computing, software, and communications (iii) The emergence of internet

Kaarlgard (2003) Cheap Revolution: (i) the dizzying price-performance dynamics ranging from microelectronics innovations involving computer chips through data storage. (ii) innovations in regard to fiber optic wireless bandwith (iii) changes in software design and costs (iv) the emerging cost and delivery structure of digital content.

What we have in this Cheap Revolution is the congruence of microelectronics revolution, broadband services, and software.

Agenda-Setting
US seems to protect its role as an agenda setter for global market. Why? Five reasons (i) US has a large lead in its deployed ICT stock that is extremely difficult for other countries to overcome (ii) US has the largest investment base and flows in the critical areas for innovation. (iii) US will remain the leader fro the foreseeable future in software, networked digital applications, high value-added commercial content, and high-end IT computing systems (iv) US will continue to be among the top three global markets. (v) US is the leading producer of high value-added content.

Two-counter arguments: (i) China (ii) Decline of US spending in ICT marketsegments

Impact on Institutions and Governance
-Role of government policy makers in four main ways: (i) Policy makers now have access to far more information (maybe too much information) (ii) Global networks mean that decision making can be centralized or decentralized. (iii) Global networks erode the monopoly of information in the hands of governments. (iv) Global networks provide greater transparency to everybody.

- Business firms think and act in terms of a global marketplace. NGOs are empowered. They can create, track, and disseminate information, and motivate and organize individuals etc.

- Governance is complicated. To overcome this problem: (i) Governments can try to muddle through, reacting as new circumstances and issues aries. (ii) Governments can maintain a deregulatory stance, step aside, and put their faith in the magic of the markets. (iii) Governments may try to work through international institutions such as the ITU, WTO, and IMF.

- The legal and policy areas most directly affected by the ICT revolution can be grouped into four main areas that impact (i) individuals (ii) the content that flows over global networks (iii) the global communication infrastructure (iv) the global regulatory environment, and the issues related to network security - cybersecurity.

Conduct of Foreign Policy
Discussion on the impact of web on democratic/authoritarian rule (Kamarck and Nye, 1999; Kalathil and Boas, 2003) Dizard 2001: less attention on the impact of ICT on the foreign policy conduct. Policy information cycle unfolds over four stages: (i) relevant information is collected using various technologies from a wide array of sources (ii) information is transmitted across a secure global network. (iii) specialists analyze, synthesize, and present masses of information to the appropriate officials who then must take decisions (iv) governments try to implement their decisions by winning support from legislatures, courts, and other powerful interest groups.
 * Satellites and fiber optic cables made global networks easier to build and more secure.

- And then we have the CNN effect. (the following part is from the FP & Communication article)

Transmission or conveying of information through a system of symbols, signs, or behavior. (1) Making of foreign policy and role of the mass media (2) how fp is understood as a communicated message by allies and adversaries. (3) constructivism, poststructuralism, and discourse analysis

(Who communicates what to whom via what channels for what purpose) Interpersonal communication and mass mediated communication (i.e. Groupthink) Communication: interpereting messages about particular policies prospect theory: acceptance or avoidance

__Who communicates:__ Western (2005): an advocacy process shapes the debate over specific policies. Knopf (1998): even protest groups are involved in this process. Also advocacy networks are important in that sense. There is a CNN effect.

__What is communicated: framing__ Just et al. (1998): frames refer to structures that select or highlight particular bits of information in constructing an argument or in evaluating an object. Leighley (2004): frame as the presentation or conceptualization of an issue, event, or idea associated with other beliefs or values. Entman (2004): selecting and highlight some facets of events or issues, and making connections among them so as to promote a particular interpretation, evaluation, and/or solution. Wolfsfeld (1997): central organizing ideas for making sense of relevant events and suggesting what is at issue

Druckman (2004): makes the distinction between equivalency, and issue frames. Equivalency frames are those that are logically equivalent presentations. (Lynch 1999, Risse 2000, Schimmelfenning 2003, Muller 2004), and normative change (Keck and Sikkink 1998)

Beer and Hariman (1996): Framing at its broadest includes the construction of the story of realism. Tuchman (1978): frames both produce and limit meaning.

(George 1989, Hutcheson 2004): national identity has been addressed in the literature as a constructed and public national self-imaes based on membership in a political community as well as history, myths, symbols, languages, and cultural norms.

__To Whom: Public Opinion:__ Various audiences: political elite, decision makers, public, foreign audiences. Entman, Holsti, Knecht and Weatherford

__Via What Media:__ McLuhan 1994: media ecology Dizard 2001: electronic information and resources are affecting foreign policy by (1) raising a new set of strategic issues; (2) changing how information is used and stored in the foreign policy-making establishment (3) rise of public diplomacy. Brown 2005: argues that the diffusion of communication technologies, ranging from the telephone to the internet, is producing a more open, more public, political environment and that this environment modifies the type of political strategies at work. Hanson 2008: development of internet has increased transparency of governmental actions and events. Livingston 2003: three types of transparency (1) domestic transparency that focuses on the state's disclosure of information (2) imposed transparency that attempts to gain access to information from others (3) systemic transparency that refers to the proliferation of communication technology. Baum (2004): argues that the new trend of soft news, dramatic human-interest themes etc.

__Communication for What Purpose?__ Entman 2004: political leaders peddle their messages to the press in hopes of gaining political leverage. Brown 2005: political actors use media to mobilize support Pan and Kosicki 2001: framing is a discursive means to achieve political potency in influencing public deliberation. George 1989: policy legitimacy - the forces of democratic control and domestic pressures do not hobble him and prevent him from conducting a coherent, consistent and reasonably effective long-range policy. - therefore we have something called a fundamental consensus. George say the policy legitimacy has two components: (i) a leader must convince people that he knows how to achieve these desirable long-range objectives. (ii) also the objectives and goals of his policy are desirable and worth pursuing - in other words, that his policy is consistent with fundamental national values and contributes to their enhancement.

Benn (1992)L the role of information is so fundamentally important in the shaping of political perceptions that one is sometimes in danger of overlooking it. Jervis (1970, 1976) - signals and indices. signals are characterized by tacit or explicit agreements about their meaning. indices carry inherent evidence that the image is correct because they are believed to be inextricably linked to the actor's capabilities or intentions.

Audience costs
now, there is a need to communicate not only with domestic audiences but with international audiences as well. Slantchev (2006): points out that making commitments credible is difficult at best. Warren (2008): communicative structuralism: suggests that the literature on audience costs assumes a communication network, signals transmitted via that network, a mass audience to receive the signals, and the means to effect a coordinated response. Baum 2008: media in multi-party democracies are more likely to make competing frames - including alternatives to the government's preferred frame -.

Constructivism/Poststructuralism/Discourse Analysis
The role of mass media. Lynch 1999: discursive structures and framing processes in understanding foreign policy. Framing at the domestic level and through mass media is central to the construction and maintenance of state identities (Bruner 2002, Rowland and Frank 2002, Nau 2002) Wendt: rhetorical practice through consciousness-raising, dialogue, discussion and persuasion etc." affecting identities and interests.

International Relations
Old way of doing business and conducting policy are being thrown into question.

Security
Keohane & Nye: three kinds of information (i) Free information available at no charge (ii) commercial information available for a price (iii) strategic information that confers great advantage on actors only if their competitors do not possess it

- Global communication networks help governments collect and analyze vast amount of info. - Governments try to use soft power to influence the views of others through ICTs - Modern warfare is changing: AWACS J-STARS

Politics
E-government, e-democracy, e-participation. Routinely use web to provide citizens and supporters with information. But governments are losing their hegemony over the political process. Because ICTs empower NGOs, firms, revolutionaries, terrorists, fundamentalist religious leaders, extremists etc.

Economy
Globalization and global networks promote economic growth through increased trade and investments. But early adopters have an edge. Global flow of funds and information may undermine national policies, and facilitate crime and corruption.

So, we have the problem for digital divide (Castells) - uneven development. Illegal activities could undermine the trust in and functioning of the world exobomy.

Social/Network/Cultural
A second digital divide separates those who are comfortable using new technologies from those who are not. Communications networks redefine questions of identity. Communications networks may bolster the prospects for successful public diplomacy. = = =Theories of Regimes= A regime refers ti regularized cooperative patterns of interaction or behavior among international actors. Stephen Krasner (1983) notes that regimes are principles, norms, rules, decision-making procedures, and often times, institutions which are explicitly or implicitly agreed upon by international actors in specific issues.

Communication regimes are founded on the principles of sovereign interaction while encouraging smooth information flows among nation-states, especially for enabling international commerce.

There is a mutual interest/interests or convergent interests of international actors that tilt them toward cooperation to achieve their objectives.

Regimes tend to be seen as intermediate factors, or intervening variables, between the self-interested motivations of international actors and the particular outcomes of international interaction.

State Power
Realist understanding: A leader state, a hegemon shoulders the burden of getting other states to agree through moral suasion, incentives, or sanctions.

Economic Interdependence
There is a mutuality of interests, yet there are other factors. (i) International institutions can play a big role. (ii) Domestic and transnational actors can often be forces in their own right for international cooperation. (iii) The role of users of telecommunication services is particularly important for communication regimes.

Collective Understandings
Many of the cognitive processes involved in actors mutually adjusting their interests. Role of many factors that may produce an intersubjective understanding of cooperation among actors, which facilitate regime formation.

(i) socialization of agents (ii) hegemonic ideologies (iii) epistemic communities (Haas, 1990)

We need to understand how the interests arise in the first place, before turning to how interests lead to regime formation.

Technology
The nature of, and changes in, communication technologies are factors in their own right in understanding communiction regimes. 'natural' monopoloy in telecommunications - need for huge investments monopoly model broke down when technological innovations began to challenge the notion of high ivnestment costs. Decentralized governance model of the internet is often connected to the technological decentralization of the internet.

Critique and Synthesis
Krasner's explanation of power-driven regime formation. Zacher combines state-power with interdependence and technology to provide a complete account. Cowhey finds most of his rationale in interdependence factors but also accountrs for the inter-subjective understanding of epistemic communities. Singh combines varying conditions of power, both from states and markets, with collective understandings to show how international negotiations lead to variable outcomes for communication and global governance.

=History of IC Regimes= Until late 70s/early 80s, it was dominated by state- or privately owned monopolies in communication industries.
 * ~ //Regime features// ||~ //Monopoly era (1865 to early 1980s)// ||~ //Liberalization era (early 1980s to present)// ||
 * Nature/scope |||| Telecommunications, broadcasting, electronic commerce, and internet ||
 * Strength || Telecommunications: strong || Telecommunications: strong ||
 * || Broadcasting: weak to strong depending on issue || Broadcasting: increasingly strong ||
 * ||  || Electronic commerce: weak to strong dependingon particular issue ||
 * ||  || Internet: strong ||
 * International institutions || Telecom and broadcasting: ITU, UNESCO (1970s) || Telecom and broadcasting: ITU, GATT/WTO ||
 * || Satellites: Intelsat || Satellites: Intelsat ||
 * ||  || Internet: ICANN, WIPO, WSIS ||
 * ||  || Standards: ISO ||
 * Principles and norms || Unimpeded flows of international commerce ||  ||
 * || Global commons ||  ||
 * || Interconnection and standardization ||  ||
 * || National sovereignty (sometimes in conflict with other principles and norms) ||  ||
 * Rules || National monopolies in telecom services and equipment || Liberalization of telecommunication markets ||
 * || International coordination for allocation of frequencies and orbital slots || Moves toward cost-based pricing settlements ||
 * ||  || Privatization and liberalization of cable and satellite providers ||
 * || International agreements for prices and interconnection/joint provision of services ||  ||
 * || Joint ownership for international cables ||  ||
 * Decision-making procedures || ITU: one-nation, one vote: via standing bodies, committees, and important conferences Intelsat: voting weighted by share-holdings || Multilateralization of decision-making: ITU, GATT/WTO, ISO, WIPO, OECD involving international agreementsICANN: internet governance provided througha mix of private and public authorities ||

Foundations: Telegraph and Telephone
1837 - invention of telegraph coincides with the growing strength of the commercial and industrial revolutions. Intra/inter organizational needs of capitalism. Capitalism fostered economic and other exchanges. (Zacher: Capitalism came with the mandate for interconnection). Principles and norms of capitalism and the sovereignty of the nation-state 1865: Napoleon III called for a conference in Paris which led to the birth of International Telegraph Union. Joint provision of the services, joint ownership

Deepening the Regime: Radio Broadcasting
Principles of communication regimes: unimpeded information flows, development of global commons, standardization, and sovereignty. International Radiotelegraphy Union in 1906. Inference among broadcasts: (i) start reserving particular bands of the electromagnetic spectrum for specific services (ii) register certain frequencies if they were not in use (iii) broadcasting jamming understanding developed. - minimal inference.

Challenges: Satellite and Television
East-West and North-South rivalries in the post-war period. Now we also have outer space(in addition to maritime space) - freedom of space. Direct Broadcasting Satellites: based on prior consent of receiving countries. 1976- a New World Information Communication Order (NWICO): correct the one-way flows of information from the global north to the south and also called into question the negative news about the developing world.

Telecommunications
Changed rules and decision making procedures but not so much in terms of principles and norms. The only principle that changed significantly is that state sovereignty has declined a little bit. GATT/WTO negotiations Group on Negotiation of Services (GNS) General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) WTO in 1994: governed by free trade norms, both backed by WTO rules of transparency and Most Favored Nation (MFN) WTO telecommunication negotiations WTO's fourth protocol

As the thrust of the global telecommunications regime shifted toward liberalization and WTO, major changes took place in the ITU and Intelsat. (more stuff)

Internet Governance
The internet is becoming exponentially for commercial and social purposes. The forms reflect a mix of private and public authorities at national and international levels. Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) Electronic commerce:Framework for Global Electronic Commerce The field of internet governance examines how international politics are fostered by contention over the substantive policy issues raised by the growth of global internet itself. - We are looking at the internet's availability, cost, openness, freedom, privacy, messages, and other aspects of its performance or structure.

Definitions
Internet is a set of software instructions (aka protocols) for transmitting data over networks) Internet governance is the set of policy issues related to the global coordiantion of internet domain names and addresses. WGIG/WSIS looks at the position of nonstate actors. Internet governance is collective action by governments, civil society, and/or the private sectors operators of the networks and services connected by the internet, to establish global agreements about the standards, policies, and rules of conduct governing communications that rely on the TCP/IP protocols. (i) technical standardization (ii) resource allocation and assignment (iii) policy formulation, policy enforcement, and dispute resolutions
 * Three main functions:**

Internet vs. Territorial Jurisdiction and the Nation-State
__Johnson and Post__ Argument for a decentralized and emergent law as an alternative to traditional hierarchical, state-centric control. The basic unit of governance is the network operator and indirectly the communities organized around them. The basic tool of governance is the decision to connect or disconnect. __Technological-Determinist Argument__ The internet cannot be controlled or is inherently resistant to state control. __Networked Governance__ Relies on participants' unilateral decision to disconnect and isolate bad actors and to trust and connect with beneficial partners. -Reactions: cyberanarchy, denial of service attack against the legal system.
 * State filtering and censorship

There is a claim that only traditional territorial governments can solve the public goods problems of internet governance is a strong one. ICANN - WSIS - IGF In WSIS, we have actor-network thingy.