1)+International+Communication+in+General

toc It is very difficult to define the borders of IC.Maybe one important thing not to forget about is Lasswell's "who says what in which channel to whom with what effect" Certain threads disappear, only to resurface later under a different label. This is why it is important to take a look at its history.
 * International Communication: History of the Field and Theoretical Approaches**

**Description**
Communication is at the heart of all human interaction / international interaction. We are talking about, actually, an interdisciplinary field of research by definition - a loose topical federation. It is, therefore, appropriate to refer to international communication studies in the plural form. A “loose topical confederation” may be a more accurate description than a field or subfield of study: political science, sociology, psychology, social psychology, linguistics, anthropology, and, of course, communication science and international relations.

**History -** History
Let's claim there are a couple of historical periods to discuss the development in International Communication __1) The Persuasion Paradigm:__ This was inter-war period. Known for Lasswell, Lazarsfeld, and Schramm. We are looking at first attempts to systematically study the impacts of communication (pretty much only) on public opinion. __2) The Cold War Impact:__ Known scholars: Inkeles, Kecskemeti, Lerner, Smith, Deutsch -World War II generated intense scholarly interest in the potential of the mass media for influencing opinions, attitudes, and behavior to meet US strategic needs. -The integration and disintegration of Europe and the rise of new nationalisms in countries that were former European colonies. There were two main research questions: (i) “To what extent do changes in the structure of world politics interact with changes in the structure of world communication?” (ii) “What are the strategy and tactics of communication in achieving the aims of national policy in world affairs? __3) Modernization and Development Paradigm:__ Daniel Lerner's (1958) The Passing of Traditional Society: Modernizing the Middle East and Wilbur Schramm's (1964) Mass Media and National Development. __4) Critical Perspectives in 1970s:__ Schiller, MacBride A wave of scholars criticized the focus on the internal causation of underdevelopment and emphasized external constraints, the structural biases in the international economy that put developing countries at a disadvantage, and the vulnerability of dependence. __5) International News Flow/Coverage:__ Mowlana, Hur considered international political communication in broad Deutschian terms of transaction flows across national borders, which included student exchanges, tourism, trade, diplomacy, and especially the exchange of ideas. Merritt (1972) delineated three types of communicators relevant for international politics – governmental actors, nongovernmental actors, and cultures – which yielded nine types of communication flows. __6) Globalization:__ Castells, Pool, Deibert, Mcgrew, Norris - this seems to be the most important point of the entire history debate. We have three main areas here (i) Global Economy (ii) Nation state (iii) Foreign and Security Policies.

**Theoretical Approaches -** Theoretical Approaches (the one below is much better than the link)

 * __the political-economy approach:__ is concerned with the underlying structure of economic and political power relations.
 * **Free Flow of Information:** The concept reflected Western, and specifically US, antipathy to state regulation and censorship of the media. It was part of the liberal, free market discourse designed in the post-WWII bi-polar world of free market capitalism and state socialism. As such it was part of the Cold War discourse. The FFI doctrine assisted the West in advertising and marketing their goods in foreign markets, in ensuring continuing influence of Western media on global markets, and in strengthening the West in its ideological battle with the Soviet Union. Also helped communicate, in subtle rather than direct ways, US government’s points of view to international audiences-After the second world war and the establishment of a bi-polar world of free market capitalism and state socialism, theories of international communication flows became part of the new cold war discourse The concept Free Flow represented western, especially US antipathy to state regulation, censorship and the use of media for propaganda by its communist opponents The free Flow was a liberal, free market discourse that championed rights of media propriators to sell where ever and what ever they wanted. The free flow therefore served economic and political purposes. Here, media organisations of rich countries could dissuade other from erecting trade barriers to their products or from making it difficult to gather news from their territories Their arguments drew on premises of democracy, FOX, media role as watchdogs and their assumed global relevance. For their compatriot businessmen, “free flow” assisted them in advertising and marketing their goods in foreign markets through media vehicles that championed the western way of life, capitalist values and individualism
 * **Modernization:** Complimentary to the doctrine of free flow in the post-war years was the view that international communication was the key to the process to the modernization and development of the so-called ‘Third World.’ Daniel Lerner, MIT, The Passing of Traditional Society (1958)- early 1950s research into audience exposure to radio in Turkey, Lebanon, Egypt, Syria, Jordan, and Iran. Hypothesis: exposure to the media made traditional societies less bound by tradition and made them aspire to a new and modern way of life. - see Lerner 1958, Schramm, 1964) Complementary to the doctrine of ”Free FLow” was the view that international communication, key to development in the third world International mass comm could be used to spread the message of modernity transfer economic, political models of the west to the newly independent countries of the south Western ways (power, wealth, skill, rationality etc) seem as a stimuli for development and a bridge to a wider world Critism: Top-down approach Narrow approaches Media are not neutral force (they have economic, political, social attachements and political power in hands of few) Modern (western) and traditional are not mutually exclusive (see Freira 1970)
 * **Dependency Theory:** Emerged in Latin America in late 1960s early 1970s in opposition of modernisation theory, need for alternative approaches, from the south Cultural imperialism/media ”imperialism” from dominance of western cultural products especially hollywood (Schiller, 1976)
 * **Electronic Colonialism Theory (ECT)**: In 1950s and 1960s rise of nationalism in developing countries and a shift to a service-based, information economy in the West set the stage for the fourth and current era of empire expansion. Represents the dependent relationship of LDCs on the West established by the importation of communication hardware and foreign-produced software, along with engineers, technicians, and related information protocols, that establish a set of foreign norms, values, habits, values, and expectations that, to varying degrees, alter domestic cultures, habits, values, and the socialization process. - David Rothkopf, managing director of Kissinger Associates and an adjunct professor of international affairs at Columbia University (who also served as a senior US Commerce Department official in the Clinton Administration), wrote about cultural imperialism in his provocatively titled In Praise of Cultural Imperialism?
 * **Structural Imperialism:** (Galtung 1971) Notions of centre and periphery Forwards Castells notions of space of flows i.e. harmony of interest between the core of the centre nations and the centre in the periphery nations (p83) The centre-periphery relationships are maintained and reinforced by information flows and reproduction of economic activities. These create institutional links that serve the interests of the dominant groups
 * **Media Imperialism:** Media Imperialism-developed within a broader analysis of cultural imperialism and dependency theories. Oliver Boyd-Barret defined it as “the process whereby the ownership, structure, distribution of content of the media in any one country are singly or together subject to substantial external pressures from the media interests of any other country or countries without proportionate reciprocation of influence by the country so affected (1977: 117)
 * **Hegemony:** (Gramsci 1891-1937) The role of ideology and state power in the capitalist society The dominant social group/nation has the capacity to excercise intellectual and moral direction over society or others and builds a new system of alliances to support its aims-Gramsci-this happens when this group excersise control over mass media, schools, religion etc The dominant class then coersively imposses its will on subodinate classes
 * **Public Sphere:** Habermas and stuff. The public sphere is an area in social life where people can get together and freely discuss and identify societal problems, and through that discussion influence political action. It is "a discursive space in which individuals and groups congregate to discuss matters of mutual interest and, where possible, to reach a common judgment."
 * **World-System Theory**: Provides the concepts, ideas, and language for structuring international communication. WST was proposed and developed by Immanuel Wallerstein. WST proposes that global economic expansion takes place from a relatively small group of core zone nation-states out to two other zones of nations-states, these being in the semi-peripheral and peripheral zones (THERE IS AN ENTIRE ISA CHAPTER ON THIS)
 * __the cultural studies__
 * **Critical Theory:** (Adorno) ”Cultural Industries” production of culture as a commodity by the capitalist societies as enmass This lead to standadization resulting into mass culture leading to the deterioration of other cultures Forum for propagating capitalism ideologies and thinking among recipients These debates have greatly influenced debates of thee Global flow of information and communication �
 * **Cultural Imperialism:** popularised by Jeremy Tunstall who described this term as a situation in which “authentic traditional, local culture…is being battered out of existence by the indiscrimate dumping of large quantities of slick commercial and media products, mainly from the US “The Media are American: Anglo-American Media in the World (1977: 57).
 * **Information Society:** Innovations in ICTs especially computing and their rapid global expansion has led to claims that this is an IS Speed, volumes, costs influencing global flows Covergence of telecoms with computing creating new infomation and communication flows between states, between business and among (ordinary) people �
 * **Globalization:** Barber's (1984) terms the parallelism of "McWorld" and "Jihad'. It was the advancement and diversification of satellite technology, from the 'Early Bird'. - http://web.mit.edu/comm-forum/papers/volkmer.html
 * **New Information and Communication Order:** The New World Information and Communication Order (NWICO or NWIO) is a term that was coined in a debate over media representations of the developing world in UNESCO in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The term was widely used by the MacBride Commission. ews reporting on the developing world that reflects the priorities of news agencies in London, Paris and New York. Reporting of natural disasters and military coups rather than the fundamental realities. At the time four major news agencies controlled over 80% of global news flow. - []


 * __Other Communication Theories:__ These theories are not necessarily international communication, then again, they still focus on communication.
 * **Uncertainty Reduction:** Berger & Calabrese - “One of the motivations underpinning interpersonal communication is the acquisition of information with which to reduce uncertainty”
 * **Propaganda and the Public:** Lippmann, Lasswell, Barneys, Ellul - One question that researchers sought to answer was: how can communication be utilized to create behavioral changes? Governments felt that if they were to function efficiently, they could only do so with the coordinated cooperation of their citizens.
 * **Uses and gratifications:** Hetzog, Katz, MacQuail - Uses and gratifications approach is an influential tradition in media research. The original conception of the approach was based on the research for explaining the great appeal of certain media contents. The core question of such research is: Why do people use media and what do they use them for?
 * **The Frankfurt School:** Frankfurt School included Max Horkheimer, Theodor Adorno (nee Wiesengrund), Herbert Marcuse, Walter Benjamin, Erich Fromm, Leo Lowenthal, and Friedrich Pollock. The interests of the Frankfurt School theorists in the 1920s and 1930s lay predominantly in a Marxist analysis of social and economic processes, and the role of the individual and the group in relation to these processes.
 * **Semiotics and Myth:** Barthes, Saussure, Levi Strauss
 * **Orality and Literacy:** Ong,
 * **Diffusion of Innovations:** Tarde, Rogers - According to Rogers (1995), the study of the diffusion of innovations can be traced back to the investigations of French sociologist Gabriel Tarde (p. 52). Tarde attempted to explain why some innovations are adopted and spread throughout a society, while others are ignored. At the beginning of the twentieth century, Tarde was witness to the development of many new inventions, many of which led to social and cultural change - this does come to the two-step model.
 * **Sociological Systems:** Luhman - The realization that human realities were subjective appears to have influenced the famous sociologist throughout the rest of his life.
 * **Network Society:** Castells - The concept of an information economy or network economy
 * **The Medium Theory:** Deibert, Heyer - Transformation of basic information into knowledge is not a disembodied process. How we organize and transmit our perceptions and knowledge about the world strongly affects the nature of those perceptions and the way we come to know the world.

**Foreign Policy - (the link is not bad)** IR & IC
> - Think about this as the largest construction project in human history. > ICTs helped a lot of course. Channels. There are different categories. Pretty much P2P.
 * **New Environment:** We are living in an era of global communication. Pretty much everything is about to change. State is most likely going to stay there, but other actors are with us. Braman: Information control is the power. Price: States must adopt/new sovereignty. Do not forget about the importance of framing and agenda-setting. - Again There is an entire chapter on this (The Information and Communication Revolution and International Relations).
 * Changes in the Institutions: US seems to have quite an important/dominant role. The actors are changing. The chapter explains everything in a quite lame way.
 * Conduct of IR
 * Security
 * Economy
 * Social Networking
 * Social Movements and Interest Groups: Political advocacy is the mobilization of ideas and people with the goal of influencing the thinking of policy makers or society to (i) promote a specific point of view, (ii) enact policy in the form of laws or programs. Classical model (Salisbury 1969) Resource mobilization, Political process (McAdam 1982), TANs (Keck and Sikkink).
 * Regimes
 * Internet Governance